Nikki

__Observation Overview__ For my observations, most of the time was spent observing a seven year old in my class who is below grade level in reading and comprehension in general. I also observed a three year old child who has speech delays. However, the two observations I found most interesting were of two preschool children who had behavioral needs, (in addition one of these students also has a speech delay). I say this because I never saw this as a ‘special need’. As the semester has gone on I noticed our textbook, (chapter 9), discusses that behavior can indeed be a special need. To be honest, I have always looked at behavior issues as a lack of discipline on the part of the parents and their responsibility to ensure proper behavior from their children. An exception to this thought would be something traumatic happening to the child and his/her way of dealing with it would be aggressive behavior. One of the students I observed, E.G., is infamous at our center for being very aggressive with children and staff; disobedient; and for falling out on neighborhood walks to the point where an administrator would have to be called to come and get her in order for the teachers to be able to tend to the rest of the class and get them back to the center. I was surprised to find that she goes to another school a few days a week in the mornings, specifically for behavior issues. I didn’t know such schools existed for preschoolers! She and another child are the only two students in this particular class and part of the purpose is for them to get more one on one time to help with their behavior. I suppose this tactic works as her teacher told me during the interview that she has seen improvements in her behavior. **__Nikki Benton’s Observation Log__** __DATE__ __SCHOOL__ __TEACHER’S NAME/GRADE__ __TIME IN/TIME OUT__3/19/10 Children’s Village Sandi Vincenti 10:00-1:003/19 “ Nikki Benton 3:30-5:304/1 “ “ 8:30-4:004/9 “ “ 3:30-5:304/12 “ “ 3:30-5:304/16 “ “ 3:30-5:304/22/10 “ Letticia Ford 10:00-1:00   Ch. 15 Nikki Benton 1. List three benefits of progress monitoring over annual achievement tests. // a) //// With progress monitoring, information on student learning is gathered repeatedly throughout the year rather than in one testing session. Results are available immediately. //// b) //// Allows teachers to evaluate student learning and effectiveness of instruction in an ongoing manner and make necessary changes to improve students’ academic progress. //// c) //// Provides useful feedback regarding performance to both learners and teachers. // // a) //// With mastery measurement, a probe only assesses one skill while a CBM probe assesses skills from across the academic yr. // b) // With mastery measurement there is no monitoring maintenance of skills while with CBM there is. // // a) //// Teachers can use CBM to evaluate student progress and the effectiveness of the instructional methods they are using. // b) // Teachers can identify skills with which students have the most difficulty. Then teachers can use program components that result in good growth for students. // c) // Teachers can improve learning outcomes for students by comparing rates of development under contrasting instructional interventions, thus identifying what instructional component ensures optimal growth rate. // // 1. //// Create or select appropriate tests, (probes), for the student’s grade and skill level. //// 2. //// Administer and score probes on a regular basis. //// 3. //// Graph the individual scores. //// 4. //// Set goals indicating the expected level of proficiency by the end of the year and the amount of growth expected in shorter periods of time. //// 5. //// Make instructional decisions based on CBM data. // 6. // Communicate progress to students, parents and other educational professionals using CBM data and graphs. //  // 1. //// Create 25 grade and skill appropriate probes to be done weekly. 25 problems would be systematically selected from the entire year’s curriculum. //// 2. //// Give the same directions each time. Students would be given a short amount of time to finish as many problems as possible. Then I would collect the probes and score them against the answer sheet. //// 3. //// Each child would have their own graph would the heading: __(Child’s name) Multiplication Progress Graph__. The vertical axis would list scores and the horizontal axis would list each of the 25 weeks. //// 4. //// After the first five probes I would graph a goal line in another color onto each child’s graph. //// 5. //// I would make decisions based on the student’s four most recent scores. If scores are above the goal line, I’ll increase the end of the year goal. If scores are significantly below the line, I’ll revise my instruction for that particular student. No changes will be made if progress is close to the goal line. //// 6. Share progress with students, parents and educational professionals. // // 1. //// Create 20 grade and skill appropriate writing measures to be done every two weeks. //// 2. //// I’d give the students a story starter and have them write for 3-5 minutes in response. I would score according to the number of correct pairs of words written ensuring the pairs are grammatically and semantically appropriate and spelled correctly. //// 3. //// Each child would have their own graph with the heading: __(Child’s name) Writing Measure Progress Graph__. The vertical axis would list scores and the horizontal axis would list each of the 20 weeks. //// 4. //// After the first three probes I would graph a goal line in another color onto each child’s graph. //// 5. //// I would make decisions based on the student’s four most recent scores, increasing the end of the year goal if scores are above the line; revising instruction if scores are significantly below the line. //// 6. //// I would share progress with students in order for them to feel responsible for their education. I would share progress with parents to keep them aware. I would collaborate with educational professionals to make effective decisions to continue maintaining/improving instruction and scores. //  
 * 1) List two key differences between mastery measurement and CBM.
 * 1) Name three ways CBM can be used to help at-risk students.
 * 1) What are the six steps in the CBM process?
 * 1) How would you use CBM when teaching multiplication fact families (e.g. times tables for 2, 3, 4, etc.)? Describe what you would do for each of the six steps.
 * 1) Create a CBM implementation plan for your classroom. Make sure you include the academic subject, frequency of administration, how you will score and graph the data, and how you will use the information for your instructional planning.

===__great job! 10/10 points earned__ Nikki Benton**1.Differentiate between specific learning abilities and learning strategies.** Specific learning abilities is an individual’s capacity to successfully participate in certain aspects of a learning task or certain types of learning while learning strategies are techniques, principles or rules that individuals use in situations that require the acquisition of new skills or information. **2. Identify the 4 primary sources of information about students’ specific learning abilities, learning strategies, and study skills.** __School Records__ – Readiness test results; results of vision hearing screening; information about aptitude and achievement.__The Student__ – Individual measures of specific learning abilities; current learning strategies and study skills.__Teachers__ – Current abilities and strategies for learning; current aptitude and achievement; progress in the school curriculum and response to instruction.__Parents__ – History of treatment for vision and hearing problems; home observations of current learning abilities and strategies. **3. Identify the two methods approved by IDEA 2004 as means of identifying eligibility under the learning disability category.** a). The student must show a performance problem in one of the basic school subjects.b). The student must either show poor progress in school despite being provided with high quality interventions or there must be a pattern of strengths and weaknesses.c). The student’s school performance problem must not be due primarily to another disability, i.e. hearing impairment. **4. Identify at least 3 characteristics of the response-to-intervention approach** a). systematic application of scientific, research-based interventions in general education.b). measurement of student responses to the interventions.c). use of the response data to change the intensity or type of subsequent intervention.d). high quality instructional and behavioral supports are provided for all students in general education.e). students whose performance are behind their peers receive more specialized prevention or remediation within general education.f). comprehensive evaluation is conducted by a multidisciplinary team to determine eligibility for special education and related services. **5. When determining the presence of a learning disability, why has assessment shifted from the assessment of isolated specific abilities to consideration of learning strategies?**Researchers have identified characteristic strategies of students with learning disabilities and evidence suggests that learning strategies are susceptible to training. Strategy instruction is an approach that narrows the achievement gap between students with learning disabilities and their general education peers. __10/10 points earned__ **Nikki Benton****1.** **Define learning aptitude.** Required in many environments, it is an individual’s capacity for altering behavior when presented with new information or experiences. General learning aptitude is a concern in the identification of several different disabilities. 2. **List at least 3 ways the field of assessment has attempted to make the assessment of students from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds fair.** A) The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 contained two major provisions to safeguard against testing abuses. First, was the adoption of the American Association on Mental Retardation definition of mental retardation. It showed the need to consider nonscholastic performance when determining mental retardation in a student.B) A set of procedures for special education assessment were put in place. For example: requiring that testing be conducted in the language of the student; also, no single test score would be the sole basis for determining special education placement.C) Presently, school systems and professional educators are aware of clear guidelines for the appropriate use of intelligence tests in special education assessment. **3. Define adaptive behavior.** The collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that have been learned by people in order to function in their everyday lives. It is the effectiveness or degree with which individuals meet the standards of personal independence and social responsibility expected for their age and cultural group. **4. Describe the two primary areas of assessment included on most individual tests of intellectual performance.** Verbal and nonverbal reasoning. Verbal skill may be emphasized, but nonverbal abilities are evaluated by means of figural or mathematical problem-solving tasks. Information is presented orally or with pictures or objects and students answer orally or with some type of motoric response. **5. Provide examples of information parents or other family members can contribute to the assessment of intellectual performance.**Direct observations; developmental histories; information on the student’s performance at home, in the neighborhood and in the community; observed learning aptitude, i.e. tasks the students find easy as well as ones he/she finds difficult; current nonschool adaptive behavior, i.e. personal hygiene, handling of money, and responsibility for household chores. __Nikki and Beverly__James was administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) on 1/14/09. He obtained a Verbal Comprehension Index score of 99(47th percentile), a Perceptual Reasoning Index score of 112(79th percentile), a Working Memory Index score of 77(6th percentile), a Processing Speed Index score of 94(34th percentile), a Full Scale IQ score of 97(42nd percentile), and a General Ability Index score of 106(66th percentile). James overall abilities were measured to be in the Average range. James exhibited significant weakness in his short-term auditory and short-term visual memory. He is a conceptual thinker and can abstract thought as well. His fund of basic information is fairly weak and he has difficulty articulating many of his thoughts and ideas. His comprehension of feelings, both his own and others is poor. His comprehension of social situations is average.***Note: In this hypothetical situation, we as the teachers are taking into consideration that we have explained to James’ parents what a norm group is before explaining his test results.**The Verbal Comprehension subtest assessed James’ reasoning skills, such as retrieving word association and the ability to describe words. His scores indicate that he scored at a level equal to or greater than that of 47% of the norm group.The Perceptual Reasoning subtest requires visual perception organization and reasoning with visually presented, nonverbal material to solve the kinds of problems not taught in school. On this subtest he scored at a level equal to or greater than 79% of the norm group.The Working Memory subtest tests the ability to temporarily retain recently given oral information and perform an operation with it. Here he scored equal to or greater than 6% of the norm group.The Processing Speed subtest tests the ability to pay attention and sustained effort for a two minute period of time while working with simple visual materials. His score indicates that he scored at a level equal to or greater than 34 % of the norm group. __ Good job! 10/10 points earned__=== Nikki Benton Ch. 6 Activities 1. The calculation of a child’s age is of critical importance when doing an assessment in special education. Why do we calculate a child’s age as opposed to simply asking the child how old he or she is at the time of testing?

// We need to know the exact chronological age in order to score the assessments. Specific ages help determine percentile ranks and standard scores. Many norm-referenced measures provide chronological age scores. Also, sometimes age and grade equivalents are the only available scores from a particular test. Therefore, besides being unprofessional when completing formal documents, we don’t ask a child their age because the chronological age would need to be calculated. Most children say the number of years old they are when asked their age, but for chronological age, the years, months and days of a child’s age are needed to calculate it. // 2. What is a percentile rank? What does it mean when we say that a child falls into the 55th percentile? // In reference to a percentage of persons, it indicates relative position within a norm group. The scores are reported by referring to that portion of the norm group against which the student is being compared. A child who falls into the 55th percentile performed at a level equal to or greater than 55% of the norm group and at a level lower than 45% of the remaining norm group. //

3. Define and explain the terms quartiles and deciles. // Decile- any one of the values in a series dividing the distribution of individuals in the series into ten groups of equal frequency. // // Quartile – the value of the boundary at the 25th, 50th, or 75th percentiles of a frequency distribution divided into four parts. //

4. What are standard scores? Draw the chart representing IQ standard scores (with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation 15) and their respective classifications.

// Standard scores are derived scores that transform raw scores to a new scale with a set mean and standard deviation. They provide a standard scale for reporting norms for various age or grade groups within the total standardization sample. // ***Drawing will be submitted Saturday, I do not know how to do that on the computer.**

5. Define the terms z score, T score and stanine. Create a chart comparing these three types of scores to standard deviation scores ranging from –2.0 to –2.0.

// Z score – one type of standard score and its distribution has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. // // T score – another form of derived score shown in increments of 10. It is related to other types of scores, (i.e. z scores, percentiles and stanines), in a normal distribution. // //Stanines – A type of derived score in which the distribution is divided into nine segments or standard nines, each being .5 standard deviation in width. They represent a range of performance rather than a specific score, therefore the data is less precise than those from standard scores.//

6. Define and explain the terms age equivalent and grade equivalent. Give an example of each. //They are age and grade scores derived from the performance of the norm group. They express test performance in terms of the familiar units of chronological age or grade in school. It is ordinal data and appears to be the easiest to understand and interpret, but they are subject to misinterpretation//. // Example: A student may receive an age score of 8 years, 4 months on a math achievement test and a grade score of 2.5 on a reading achievement test. //
 * This drawing will also be submitted Saturday.

__10/10 points earned!__
===Nikki BentonChapter 5 Activities Define and explain each of the following types of validity: Criterion-related, Concurrent and Construct. **Criterion-related validity is authenticating an instrument by an outside criterion such as school grades or teacher ratings of academic performance. There are two types of criterion-related validity, one being concurrent validity. Concurrent validity focuses on the relationship between a measure and a current criterion. It is studied by administering the measure and the criterion measure to the same group at the same time. Construct validity is the degree to which an instrument measures the theoretical construct it intends to measure.** Discuss the difference between convergent validity and discriminant validity. **Both subcategories of constructs, convergent validity is when measures of constructs that should be theoretically related are observed to relate to each other. On the other hand, discriminate validity is when measures of constructs that theoretically should not be related are observed to not be related to each other.** There are two types of criterion-related validity. Define each and explain the difference between them. **Predictive validity is a measure’s ability to predict future performance. Concurrent validity is studying the relationship between a measure and a current criterion. The difference between the two is the way the measures are administered. With predictive validity, a measure is administered to a particular group and then a criterion measure is administered to the same group at some point in the future. With concurrent validity the measure and criterion measure are administered to the same group at the same time.** There are four factors that can affect the validity of an assessment measure. Discuss each of these four factors. **Content area – The measure must assess what content area it claims to assess and make clear the boundaries of the content area.Universe of content – The measure should be clear as to if it assesses the entire universe of content or a sampling of the universe.Portion of the content universe - If the measure assesses a portion of the content universe it must be representative, complete and all important elements included.Tasks – The tasks used to assess content should be appropriate for the skill/knowledge being assessed.** Define and explain each of the following types of reliability: Test-retest, Split-half, Interrater and Alternate-forms. **Test-retest – Typically studied with a segment of the norm group, it refers to the consistency of a measure from one administration to another. It is administered once during norming and again to the same group after a brief period.Split-half – Studied with one form of measure and one group, it refers to a measure’s internal consistency. After administering, the measure is divided in half and the results are compared.Interrater – refers to the consistency among people who evaluate the performance of the individuals being assessed. Alternate forms – More than one form of the same measure exists and they are to be used interchangeably and produce consistent results.** What is the standard error of measurement? Why is it important? In your answer, be sure to discuss the terms obtained score, true score and error score. **It is quantifying measurement error which can be determined if the standard deviation and reliability of the measure are known. It is important because it is related to variability of scores and reliability. It is also an indicator of the technical quality of an assessment tool and helps with interpretation of results. The obtained score consists of the student’s hypothetical true score and an error component. The error score is computed using the standard error of measurement and used to create a confidence interval, a range of scores in which it is highly likely the student’s true score will fall.** There are four factors that can affect the reliability of an assessment measure. Discuss each of these four factors.**1. Consistency of a measure from one administration to the next.2. A measure’s internal consistency.3. Consistency of individuals evaluating the performances of students.4. Correlation coefficient needs to be of adequate magnitude.**=== === == =

=__Nice Job! A__= CBA ProjectNikki Benton My class at Children’s Village, (CV), is made up of second graders that go to four different schools. At their respective schools they have all been learning about double digit addition, with a focus on carrying the tens digit. They have also been learning about double digit subtraction with a focus on borrowing. I chose to do a math assessment to see how they were coming along with acquiring these skills. Due to the fact that I help these children with their homework, I already had an idea as to how they were grasping the skills. However, as I read about error analysis I became intrigued with seeing if there was an actual pattern to any errors they might make which further instilled the decision to do a math assessment. I purposely started off the addition section with single digits whose sums were single digits, then progressed to single digits whose sums were double digits, then adding double digits. I followed a similar pattern for the subtraction section. As with most classes, my students are a heterogeneous bunch when it comes to their skill levels. For this assignment I chose three students who are at different stages in their math skills.The first two students I chose did not have school on the day I did the assessments. All the students from this particular school were in one classroom and I was able to take the two children I wanted to assess into our classroom. At 2:00 I informed them that at 2:30 I would be taking them into our room and I explained what would happen and that it was for a class I was taking. I figured if I told them a little while beforehand they would have a little time to get used to the idea and not freak out. They both smiled and agreed to do it. At 2:30 I took them into our classroom and the conditions were optimal because the room was quiet as it was just us there; the room was well lit and the furniture was conducive to their size. We sat down at a round table and I reiterated that this wasn’t for a grade, but to try their best. I also explained that I could not help them like I do at homework time and they both nodded their heads.The first student, Y, is CA 7-8 years old. He usually does not come on Tuesdays and Thursdays, but stays at his school for tutoring, mostly for reading. He had been tested at his school and I know that he scored low in reading and recalling. As he did the assessment he sat hunched over his paper. He went through the first row of problems quickly. When he got to the second row he would pause and stare at the problems. He would write an answer and a few times erase it and write something else. When he finished the fourth row of problems he looked at Jenny’s paper and then back at his own for a couple of seconds. He repeated these actions to which I asked, ‘Do you understand what you are supposed to do at the bottom?’ and he said ‘No’. I asked him to read the directions to me as well as the first statement. He asked ‘Do it for all of them?’ and I said ‘You would just circle the specific number it is asking for. Each one is different.’ He then began working on the bottom section of problems. It took him about 8 minutes to complete the page.In checking his work, his errors seemed to be random with no connectivity except that in general he has trouble with double digit addition and subtraction. All of the problems in the second and fourth rows were incorrect. For the first problem in the second row he wrote ‘78’, he added the 2 and 5 correctly but not the 2 and 3. For the second problem in the same row he got ‘48’, therefore neither column was added correctly. For the last two problems in that row he got ‘69’ and ‘87’. He did not carry any ones to the tens column and, in fact, I find it interesting to note that the tens column decreased from 8 to 6 in an addition problem. For the fourth row he got the answers 1, 8, 17 and 1. For the first problem in that row he did write the one under the tens column, which would make the problem partially correct if that was his logic, however I have to wonder as the rest of his answers are quite off the mark. At the bottom of the page he circled the numbers in the tens and thousands places incorrectly, but the last two were correct.The second student, J, is CA 7-11 years old and is quite studious and thoughtful. There may be times she needs clarification on directions, whether oral or written, but once she understands them she is focused and uses her time well. Upon receiving the assessment and giving it a quick glance, she said, ‘It’s kinda easy’ and she went through the first line quickly. She worked steadily and would occasionally look up from her paper. At one point she leaned her head on her hand. When she overheard me going over the directions for the bottom section with Y she asked, ‘Can we try our best to do it all?’ and I said ‘Yes!’ with a smile. When she was done she said ‘Finished’ and then asked ‘Can I look at [child’s name]?’ to which I said ‘When he’s done and only if he wants you to’ to which he smiled and emphatically shook his head no. At that time I figured this was an indication that he felt he hadn’t done well on the assessment. It took J about 6 minutes to complete the page.J’s results were easier for me to analyze than Y’s. She only had two incorrect answers in the top half of the page, both dealing with subtraction. For 8 minus 6, she wrote ‘3’ and for 92 minus 27 she wrote ‘75’. For the latter problem, she did cross out the 9 and made it an 8, though she still subtracted incorrectly. This is interesting to note because both errors involved the number 8 being subtracted from, as well as the numbers 6 and 2. Therefore, perhaps she needs to work on subtraction facts primarily involving the number 8. There was one more error at the bottom of the page for the second statement for which she circled the 6.The last student, H, is CA 9-1 years old. She has attended CV since a toddler and was held back an extra year in preschool before starting kindergarten at the suggestions of her preschool teachers and staff psychologist. When she entered my class I noticed right away that she had trouble with simple concepts whether reading, writing or math; concepts that should be mastered by second grade. For example knowing the difference between ‘b’ and‘d’. I voiced my concerns to the psychologist. She happened to be in our class one day and was able to observe for herself. She saw that H would get math counters for single digit addition and subtraction and the answers would be single digits as well. The psychologist remarked to me that she would like to speak with her mother regarding tutoring for her, (though, she noted, this isn’t the best time as her family is going through a major problem right now), but in the meantime I should do flashcards with her as she should be further along in her math skills at this point. The classroom conditions for H were quite different from Y’s and J’s. She arrived at CV at her usual time, 4:00 after a full day of school. Her school is the last to arrive on any given day. I talked to her about my assignment and asked if she would be willing to do it after she finished her homework and she agreed. She ate snack and did her homework, which was four word problems with double digit addition. For two of the problems upon checking her answers I needed to remind her to carry the one to the tens column. Next she was ready to do the assessment. By this time of day the classroom is noisier because all of the children have arrived. At this time there are many activities going on: homework, computer, snack and free time for those who have finished or do not have homework.I gave her the assessment, explaining that I couldn' t help her as I did with her homework. She looked at the page and got up from her seat and got the math counters in our classroom. When she finished the third problem in the second row she looked at me and said’ I carried the one’ and I said ‘That’s good’. When she used the counters she would count out loud. At one point she said ‘This is hard’ and I smiled and said ‘Try your best’. I noticed that she was doing her problems in random order and not row by row. As she would finish a problem she would sit back and look around the classroom and then back at the paper. When she finished the first four rows she said, ‘I’m done’ to which I said, ‘You didn’t do the bottom’, to which she said, ‘What’s this?’ I said ‘Read it’. She read it to herself and began to work. When she was finished I remarked that I noticed that she did the problems in a random order and I asked if there was a reason for this to which she smiled and shrugged her shoulders. Upon glancing at the bottom of the assessment I noticed she circled the entire group of numbers for each problem and then drew a line from each number to one of the statements. I asked her about this and she said she didn’t learn about it, (placement values), in school yet. It took her about 10 minutes to complete the page.In correcting her assessment, I saw that for the last two problems in the first row, she did indeed carry the one as she had stated, she wrote a 1 in a box above each problem, though these are not problems where you carry a 1, it is contained in the answer. For 3 plus 8 she wrote, ‘1’ and for 9 plus 5 she wrote ‘4’. For each problem she wrote the ones digit but neglected the tens digit, which was 1 for both problems. In the last two problems in the second row, she wrote ‘17’ and ‘83’. Her digits for the ones place were right in both problems. For 88 plus 9 it seems she may have added the 8 and 9 in the ones column to get 17. For 46 plus 47 she wrote a one in a box over the column of fours but neglected to add it. In the third row she wrote ‘27’ for the problem 15 plus 12, clearly adding instead of subtracting. In the last row for the last two problems she wrote 79 and 20. She subtracted the tens columns correctly in both problems, but neglected to borrow for the ones columns; the answers for the ones columns seem off the mark. I believe H’s mistakes could be attributed to a few factors. I don’t believe she was very focused as evidenced by doing a problem and then sitting back to look around. I’m quite sure her lack of focus had to do with the noise level and activities going on in the room as well as the time of day, late in the afternoon after a full day of school and homework. The last factor would be that she still needs to master simple addition and subtraction concepts as well as not being exposed to place values at school.I enjoyed doing this project because I was able to really observe the children’s actions as they worked. I also liked focusing on error analysis because now I have a better idea of what in particular each student needs help with. Now when I check my other students’ work, I will be more apt to look for a pattern in errors. This gives me the ability to focus on each child as an individual and help them as such.

=__10/10 points earned__= Nikki Benton1. In standardized testing, test tasks are presented under standard conditions so that the student’s performance can be compared to the performance of the Norm Group.

a. One of the student’s parents or the student’s teacher is present in the testing room. b. Chairs and a table are available for the student and the tester. c. All of the equipment and test materials needed for the session are placed on the test table ready for use.** d. The temperature and ventilation in the room are comfortable for the student.
 * 2. Which of the following statements describe(s) an adequate testing environment?
 * e. The testing room is located near poplar school activities such as music and physical education.

3. Which of the following is not good practice in introducing the students to the testing situation?** a. Tests should be scheduled at the same time as the student’s favorite classroom activities**. b. Physical needs of the students should be attended to before testing begins. c. The students should be informed about the purpose of testing. d. The tester should explain to the student what will happen during the test, including the length of the session, types of test activities, and so forth.

4. Preparing a student psychologically for testing is called a. Establishing the basal.** b. Establishing rapport**. c. Coaching. d. Projective analysis.

5. Suppose a professional began test administration with item number 10 in an attempt to establish a basal of four consecutively numbered correct responses. If the student failed item 10, what test item should be administrated next?** Item 9

1. It helps to interpret results of a test.2. It provides a beginning for planning instructional strategies.
 * 6. Give two reasons why it is important to observe the student’s behavior during test administration.**

a. When a student earns a percentile rank score of 54, this means that 54% of the test questions were answered correctly. b. An age equivalent score of 10-3 indicates that the student’s raw score is equal to the average raw score of grade 10.3 students in the norm group.** c. If test standard scores are distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, a standard score of 85 indicates performance one standard deviation below the mean.
 * 10. Choose the statement that best explains the meaning of the score.
 * d. If test standard deviation scores are distributed with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10, a standard score of 70 indicates performance two standard deviations below the mean.

11. A student received a standard score of 100 on a test in which the mean standard score is 100, the standard deviation is 15, and the scores are normally distributed. This score a. falls at the 50th percentile. b. is within the average range. c. indicates performance at the mean.** d. All of the above statements are true.

=10/10 points earned for chapter Three!!!!!= Nikki BentonChapter 3 ActivitiesOne major impetus for the passage of federal special education laws was concern over misuse of standardized tests with culturally and linguistically diverse students. Using Table 3–2 in the text as a guide, discuss several inappropriate assessment practices of the past and explain the current legal safeguards to prevent the recurrence of these practices.

2. On norm-referenced tests, the standard of comparison against which a student's performance is evaluated is the performance of age (or grade) peers in the norm group. Explain the standard of comparison for informal assessment tools such as classroom quizzes, inventories, and criterion-referenced tests. ** //For classroom quizzes the results are converted to a percentage. A student’s performance on a quiz can be compared to the difference between the percentage correct on each occasion of taking a quiz. Inventories may be described as age-referenced or grade-referenced. It may deal with subject matter of specific grade levels. Criterion-referenced tests yield categorical findings. The students results are in ‘pass/fail’ form and whether a skill is mastered or not.// **
 * //One inappropriate assessment practice was decisions were made about the placement of students without a complete evaluation of them. To rectify this, a variety of measures are used to assess a student in all areas of a suspected disability. Another past abuse of assessment was the use of poor quality assessment instruments for evaluation. Now as a safeguard the instruments must be technically sound and used for the purpose in which they are valid and reliable. Another issue of abuse was the assessment of non-English speaking students in English. To combat this, assessments must be administered in the language and form most likely to yield precise information. Another inappropriate assessment practice was students were evaluated for special education without parental notice or consent. Presently, before evaluation, parents must be given notice and in turn give informed consent.//**

3. When professionals select a tool for assessment, they consider not only the technical quality of the measurement device, but also the particular purpose for which it will be used. Tell why a technically poor measure is never an appropriate assessment tool. Then give an example of a situation in which a technically adequate measure is inappropriate because it does not fit the purpose of the assessment. **//A technically poor measure is never an appropriate assessment tool because it will yield poor results which will ultimately be a disadvantage in the placement of students. It could cause frustration and mental anguish for a student if he/she is asked to do something beyond his or her functioning level. A technically adequate measure is inappropriate when it does not provide the particular information needed to answer an assessment question. For example, if there is a question concerning classroom behavior, a classroom quiz would be an inappropriate measure.//**

4. Grade equivalents are available on many tests, although there are many criticisms of this type of score. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of grade scores, giving your opinion on the International Reading Association's recommendation that grade equivalents be eliminated from standardized tests. **//The advantages of grade scores include: of all norm-referenced scores they are easiest to understand and interpret; perhaps a grade equivalent result will help the teacher to decide what materials are best suited to teach a particular student. The disadvantages of grade scores are: they are complicated and therefore subject to misinterpretation; the results might be used as an indicator of absolute performance instead of in relation to the results of other test takers. If grade equivalents are indeed commonly used as an indicator of absolute performance, then I agree that they should be eliminated from standardized tests. I feel they should be used to compare results with that of others within the test-taker group.//**

5. Discuss several potential sources of bias in the assessment process, including the selection of inappropriate procedures. Identify five ways in which bias can be introduced into assessment, and discuss how each can be prevented. **//A.) The norm group is not representative of the race, culture and gender of the student. This can be prevented by selecting an assessment tool that represents the characteristics of all individuals involved in the norm group.////B.) The total number of diverse individuals in a norm group may be small. To avoid this, some tests use several norm groups of approximate equal size.////C.) Inappropriate assessment tools for students whose communication mode is not English. To combat this, it is essential that technically adequate tools available in that language and a professional who is fluent in the language and possessing the assessment expertise to administer the test be made available.////D.) The tools for assessment exploit a student’s disability. To prevent this, the tools for assessment should minimize the effects of the student’s disability. If a student has a short attention span, poor self-concept or impulsivity, these factors must be considered in selecting assessment procedures.////E.) A culturally biased test may be administered. To prevent this, culture-free and culture-fair measures have been developed. They attempt to minimize factors that may weaken the performance of diverse students.//1. If the assessment procedure is appropriate for the age, grade, and ability level of the student, then its technical quality is not a consideration. true** false


 * 2. Trained professionals must be available to administer, score, and interpret the assessment. **

true
 * false

3. Assessment devices must be selected and administered so they are not racially or culturally discriminatory. ** true
 * false

4. The regulations for IDEA 2004 provide a recommended list of tests and other procedures for use in special education assessment. ** true
 * false

5. Results of informal measures such as inventories are often expressed as frequency counts (for example, the number of items the student answers correctly). ** true
 * false

6. Age and grade equivalents are useful scores because they are easy to understand and are rarely misinterpreted. true** false

true 8. When standard scores are based on a normal distribution, they are easily converted into percentile ranks, stanines, and other types of standard scores.** true
 * 7. Percentile ranks are comparative scores that allow the student's performance to be contrasted with the performance of same-age or grade peers in the norm group. **
 * false
 * false

9. The technical adequacy of an assessment tool refers to the skills of the assessor. true** false

true** false**
 * 10. Criterion-referenced tests compare a student's performance to the performance of other students of the same age or grade.

=== ===

Nikki and Beverly
PreReferral Intervention Checklist This activity contains 3 questions. 1. Ms. Trapp comes to you, the resource specialist at your school, to consult about William, a student in the second grade. From the information given to you by Ms. Trapp, complete the Prereferral Intervention Checklist on pages 32–33 in your textbook. What other modifications or accommodations could Ms. Trapp try while waiting for the special education assessment to occur?

Name: William Age: 7 Date: 01/30/31 Teacher: Ms. Trapp Grade: Second Grade

1. AREAS OF CONCERN: //Low math scores on group tests; Behavior, (doesn't follow directions and is disruptive during work times); Assignments not consistently completed.//

2. WHAT KINDS OF STRATEGIES HAVE BEEN EMPLOYED TO RESOLVE THIS PROBLEM? //William is given visual clues and prompts and the pace of his lessons have been slowed down. Reenforcement practices were also implemented.//

A. RECORDS REVIEW AND CONFERENCE //Ms. Trapp met with the student study team to examine academic and environmental demands in the classroom. She also met with William's mother who shares the same concerns as she's seen questionable behavior at home.//

B. ENVIRNMENTAL MODIFICATIONS //William is given visual clues and prompts and the pace of his lessons have been slowed down. She also tries reenforcement as she tells William that if he completes all of his work and and is less disruptive, he will be able to visit the classroom computer center.//

C. INSTRUCTIONAL //With the help of the student study team, William is given visual cues and prompts and the pace of his lessons were slowed down.//

D. MANAGEMENT //The academic and environmental demands in the classroom were examined in order to best determine how to help William.//

3. WHAT METHODS ARE CURRENTLY EMPLOYED TO ADDRESS THE CONCERN? //The pace of William's lessons were slowed down in order for him to better understand the content of what is being taught. Also, more visual cues depicting concepts being taught are also presented.//

4. WHERE DOES THIS STUDENT STAND IN RELATIONSHIP TO OTHERS IN CLASS, GROUP OR GRADE REGARDING SYSTEMWIDE TESTS, CLASS AVERAGE BHEAVIOR, COMPLETION OF WORK, ETC?

//On the group tests given to all students, William scored in the average range in reading but experienced difficulty in math. William has difficulty completing both in class assignments and homework on a consistent basis. William is continually disruptive to Ms. Trapp's// class//.//

5. IS THE CONCERN GENERALLY ASSOCIATED WITH A PARTICULAR ITEM, A SUBJECT, OR PERSON?

//It seems to be his disruptive behavior is associated with independent classroom work and the inability to follow directions.//

6. IN WHAT AREAS, UNDER WHAT CONDITION, DOES THIS STUENT DO BEST? //It is not stated in the passage.//

7. ASSISTANCE REQUESTED (OBSERVATION, MATERIAL, IDEAS, ETC)

//Assistance was requested from the student study team as well as referral for assessment.//

//While Ms. Trapp waits for special education assessment to occur there are many modifications she could make. For instance, she could tape a list of directions given to his desk and as he does each one he can check them off. She could pair him up with a with a competent peer partner to help him improve his math skills. She could provide more visual aids. To help expel some of his energy she could give him opportunities to move around in the classroom.//

2. Ms. Trapp refers William's mother to you to explain the assessment process. William's mother wants William to be assessed for both academic and behavior difficulties. Explain the assessment process and discuss what the assessment team members do.

//First, the teacher identifies the child may have a disibility and makes a referral. Next, eligibility of services is determined. Then program planning, implementation and monitoring takes place. The assessment team members will compile information and assessments for William to get a complete picture of both his academic achievements and classroom behavior. The team members bring their expertice in the areas to help provide assistance in creating the best possible education plan for William to succeed.//

3. As you prepare to work with the assessment team, reflect on the assessment questions you have about William at this point.

//Does William have difficulty in any other subjects? Does William's behavior affect his learning in any other subjects, i.e. Art or Physical Education? Why exactly are William's disruptive outbursts around the times of directions and seatwork?//

= William =

This activity contains 3 questions. 1. The assessment team begins to collect information about William. It is determined that you and the psychologist will interview William's mother together. What questions would you have for her regarding William's strengths, interests, and challenges? //What can you tell us about his educational history? What activities does he enjoy at home? What skills does he do well? Is there anything that consistently upsets him? Is there anything occuring home that could be affecting William's behavior?//

2. In order to provide support to the classroom teacher, Ms. Trapp, you observe William in the classroom for a thirty-minute period during language arts instruction and later for a thirty-minute period during math instruction. What information could you glean from this type of observation? //From this observation you could acquire knowledge of William's behavior and environmental factors in the classroom. Also, instructional practices could be observed and how he responds to them.//

3. William's mother asks you about the next steps in the IEP process and when William will start receiving services. She wants to know how long William will be receiving special education services. How would you respond to her concerns?

//The team will work together to create the best IEP possible to help William succeed. Once you, (the mother), approve of the plan it will be implemented. William will receive special services for as long as he needs them. At least every three years his eligibility for special education will be considered. As for any concerns, I would explain that this may seem like a long tedious process, but that it is because we want to provide the best services for William. I would reassure her that the team has taken William's best interest to heart.//

GREAT JOB! 10/10 points earned.
Nikki BentonChapter 1Directions: Provide a succinct definition in your own words for each of the following terms.

Assessment__: It is gathering information about a student in order to make proper provisions for him, (if necessary), in the classroom. A variety of education professionals work together to plan strategies to gather this information. It is the data collection process as well as the decisions that result from that process.__

Measurement__: (Ch. 1) Used in the late 1800’s to study personality and other psychological factors. (Ch. 3) In education it is used to compute psychological dimensions such as aptitude, attitude and achievement. Four types of measurement scales are used to achieve this.__ Test__: One type of assessment tool used to gather information about students. It is one component of assessment.__

Bias in Assessment__: A misuse in assessment in which mostly students from diverse cultural and linguistic groups are affected. The assessments usually do not take such students into account and therefore they may perform poorly on them.__

Computer Adaptive Testing__: A formal assessment in which not all test components are presented to all students, but selected based on the student’s performance. 1. All of the following are abuses of assessment procedures with the exception of a) Discrimination based on cultural background__ b) Assessment by a team of professionals c) Administration by untrained individuals d) Inappropriate use of results

2. Assessments were created in the early 1900s for the purpose of a) Screening students in schools b) Evaluation of military personnel c) Evaluation of potential employees d) All of the above

3. Which of the following is not a part of the definition of educational assessment? a) A systematic ongoing process b) Used for decision-making purposes c) Used to establish the cause of a disability d) Used for monitoring student progress

4. Which one of the following statements describes the goals of No Child Left Behind? a) High-stakes testing, research instruction, parent choice, inclusion of students with disabilities b) No retention of students, parent communication, school accountability, less paperwork c) Equity in educational opportunities, innovative instructional practices, school choice, qualified teachers d) Accountability for student performance, focuses on what works, reduce bureaucracy, empower parents

5. Which one of the following statements is not accurate? a) Special education assessment is individualized b) Special education decisions are both legal and instructional c) The student’s abilities or disabilities are the sole focus of the assessment d) A variety of procedures and approaches are used in educational assessment.

6. Screening is

a) Always the first step in the referral process b) A large-scale data collection activity to quickly identify students who may need further study c) Required to find students who may have suspected disabilities d) The implementation of an intervention followed by data collection to make instructional decisions

7. A student is eligible for special education services when a) He or she has a school performance problem b) He or she has a diagnosed disability c) He or she has a school performance problem that is related to a disability d) The second and the third answers

8. All of the following are informal assessment strategies except

a) Teacher observation b) Portfolio analysis c) Parent interviews d) Norm-referenced tests

9. Parents are important members of the assessment team because

a) They have a different perspective of the child b) They know the child’s past educational experiences c) They can be asked to gather informational data at home d) All of the above

10. Parents must receive progress reports on IEP goals

a) As needed to make instructional decisions b) Quarterly c) At least as often as report cards are issued for general education students d) At least annually at an IEP meeting 1. Assessment is an ongoing process, not a one-time event.

SHOULD BE C
True False 2. The term // assessment // means the same as  // testing //.

True False

3. Assessment practices in special education are identical to assessment practices in the medical model.

True False

4. IDEA 2004 is the current federal law that regulates special education services.

True False

5. Prereferral strategies attempt to solve school performance problems of individual students.

True False

6. Screening assessments are much more thorough than eligibility assessments.

True False

7. Students with disabilities tend to show better performance on group tests than on individual tests.

True False

8. The team approach is recommended in federal special education laws but not required.

True False

9. Students who have a school performance problem related to a disability are eligible for special education services.

True False

10. At minimum, the student's eligibility for special education services must be evaluated every five years.

True False ESSAY (2 paragraphs for each) __

1. Why is there a need for different types of assessment? What problems would arise if only formal tests or informal measures were available? //There is a need for different types of assessment because each assessment provides specific information about the student. For example, formal tests are considered more useful in collecting information for eligibility decisions and informal strategies more useful for classroom instructional decisions. Taking both assessments into consideration would create more well rounded instructional decisions for the student.////Many problems would arise if only formal or informal measures were available because each one solely does not give an accurate description of the student’s abilities. Formal tests can have disadvantages when given in a group. They may require students to read, work under a time limit or follow directions independently; skills the student may lack. Thus the result may underestimate their abilities. A disadvantage to informal testing is interpretation can be difficult due to a lack of guidelines. However, when both formats are taken into consideration, you receive more information about the student.// 2. Explain why it is important that educational decisions about students with disabilities are made by teams, rather than by a single individual. //It is important that a team makes educational decisions about students rather than a single individual because each member contributes a unique perspective and provides valuable information essential to the decision making process. All contributions are analyzed in order to make the most appropriate decisions.////Secondly, it is essential to have a team make decisions as it is required by some federal laws. For example, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act require that teams formulate IEPs as well as evaluate and modify them. Federal laws also require decisions take into consideration several areas of student function. Particular professionals are equipped to make specific decisions, i.e. psychologists, educators, medical personnel as well as parents and students, thus the formation of a team is vital.//

3. IDEA 2004 requires that teams take into consideration the student's involvement with (and progress in) the general education curriculum. What are the implications of this requirement for general education teachers? Are they likely to become more involved in planning programs for students with disabilities? // A student’s involvement and progress in the general education curriculum will be factors in the development of his IEP. The general education teacher will be a valuable member of the IEP team. The teacher has many opportunities to conduct formal and informal assessments of the students and the results will be used in the educational decision making process for the student. Also taken into consideration is how the student will participate in state and district assessments of school achievement. //// General education teachers are very likely to become more involved in planning programs for students with disabilities as they are in a position to receive first-hand knowledge about individual students in a variety of ways. The information they gather formally and informally is essential in planning programs for students with disabilities. //

4. Although federal special education laws require that assessment procedures be nonbiased, bias does happen. What are some of the reasons for bias, and what can be done to improve current practices? //Some reasons for bias are some assessments discriminated on the basis of the student’s language, cultural background or gender. Also, unsolved problems in the area of culturally and linguistically diverse students suspected of having a disability contributed to the overrepresentation of some groups in special education programs and the underrepresentation of other groups.////To improve current practices, it is vital that qualified professionals administer assessments. Also key is administering assessments that are broad in nature and take into consideration students of many cultural backgrounds and linguistic diversities. A lot of time, effort and research will need to go into selecting appropriate assessments as the U.S. population becomes more diverse in the coming years. Or better yet, culture-fair tests would be a great solution. Other solutions would include translating assessments; interpreters; and modifications of test administration procedures.//

5. Why is it important to plan educational programs based on individual student profiles rather than based on diagnosed conditions such as mental retardation or autism? // All students are individuals first and cannot be defined by a label. To label a group with a specific disability and then teach them all in the same way would be unethical and a disservice to the students and all involved. // // Identifying a suspected disability in a student is key in helping him; however the focus is the study of his strengths, weaknesses and learning practices. Once these are identified educational environments can be adapted to address the student’s instructional needs. These needs may be different from a fellow classmate with the same disability, thus the need is apparent to plan educational programs based on individual student profiles. // // It is important to focus on the student’s strengths and weaknesses, and then adapt the instructional environment to his educational //